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目录contents
铅钡硅酸盐是中国古代费昂斯和玻璃制品的典型成分类型。本文首先明确了铅钡硅酸盐制品包含铅钡釉陶、铅钡釉砂、铅钡玻璃以及硅酸铜钡颜料四大类,并重点讨论前三者,强调不宜用“铅钡玻璃”指代铅钡硅酸盐制品。其后,文章整体梳理了战国时期铅钡硅酸盐制品的出土范围和存续时间。在此基础上,重新讨论了铅钡釉陶、铅钡釉砂、铅钡玻璃的关系问题,提出铅钡釉陶和铅钡釉砂都不是铅钡玻璃的先驱,三者在战国早期的出现更像是铅钡这种全新助熔剂在不同材质上的应用。
Lead-barium silicate is a typical composition of faience and glass in ancient China. In this paper, we firstly declare that lead-barium silicate products consist of lead-barium glazed pottery, lead-barium faience, lead-barium glass and copper barium silicate pigment, and mainly focus on the former three and further point out that it is not appropriate to use “lead-barium glass” to refer to all types of lead-barium silicate products. Then we summarize the excavation sites and times of lead-barium silicate products of the Warring States Period, and re-review the opinions that lead-barium faience is the precursor of lead-barium glass. Based on these works, we propose that lead-barium glazed pottery and faience are not the pioneers of lead-barium glass, and that the emergence of these three lead-barium silicate products in the early Warring States Period is more likely the application of new lead-barium fluxes to different materials.
20世纪30年代,Seligmen和Beck[1-2]分析了一批相传来自洛阳金村的汉代(或稍早时期)至唐代的玻璃,发现在汉代及其以前的54个样品中,同时含PbO和BaO的有39个。而西方迟至19世纪才在玻璃配方中添加钡的化合物[1],因此铅钡玻璃一直被视为中国古玻璃所特有的类型,存续年代为战国时期至东汉。铅钡玻璃的研究主要集中在矿料来源和产地两个方面:铅钡玻璃矿料来源经历了从铅钡混合矿同时引入[3]到铅、钡不同源的认识过程[4-5],后者已得到越来越多的证据支持[6-7];学界普遍认同战国时期的楚地是铅钡玻璃的一个生产中心[5]。随着考古新发现和研究工作的推进,越来越多以铅钡为助熔剂,但主体并非完全玻璃化的硅酸盐制品被发现,这类制品包括铅钡釉砂、铅钡釉陶以及与铅钡熔剂密切相关的硅酸铜钡。考虑到硅酸铜钡通常作为颜料或某些器物的主要显色成分[8-9],故本文重点讨论铅钡釉砂、铅钡釉陶、铅钡玻璃。笔者曾基于此前掌握的证据,提出胎体和釉层均含铅、钡的这类釉砂是铅钡玻璃的先驱,暗示它们的出现促进了铅钡玻璃的产生[10]。然而,山东鲁国故城的新发现[11]和江苏鸿山邱承墩越墓蜻蜓眼珠性质的新认识[11],促使笔者重新审视“铅钡釉砂是铅钡玻璃前身”的观点。本文在系统梳理战国铅钡硅酸盐制品出土情况的基础上,重新讨论铅钡釉砂、铅钡釉陶和铅钡玻璃的关系问题。
在正式讨论前,需要说明“铅钡玻璃”这一概念所指。铅钡玻璃特指以铅钡为助熔剂且主体部分为完全玻璃化的硅酸盐制品,而铅钡釉砂和铅钡釉陶则分别是以石英砂和陶土为胎体主要组分,表面覆盖铅钡釉层的硅酸盐制品,不少学者[11-13]都曾明确指出釉砂、釉陶、玻璃在结构上的区别。在早期研究中,“铅钡玻璃”有时专指完全玻璃化的真正的玻璃[5],有时则是釉砂、釉陶、玻璃这三种材质的概括性名称[14]。现在,笼统地以“铅钡玻璃”概括所有的铅钡硅酸盐制品已不符合实际情况。李青会等[15]在《古代玻璃烧制工艺与成分研究历程》一文中已使用“铅钡硅酸玻璃”而非“铅钡玻璃”的概念,显然也注意到了“铅钡玻璃”已不适于概括釉陶、釉砂在内的铅钡制品。为避免概念混淆,本文统一用“铅钡硅酸盐制品”指代以氧化铅和/或氧化钡为主要熔剂的硅酸盐制品,其中铅钡釉陶、铅钡釉砂、铅钡玻璃分别专指其胎体为陶质、石英砂质、完全玻璃化的制品,而对胎体材质不详的则仍统一用“铅钡硅酸盐制品”称之。
表1是目前已发表的战国时期铅钡硅酸盐制品出土分布范围和各省数量汇总,从中可以看到战国时期的铅钡釉砂、铅钡釉陶和铅钡玻璃广泛出土于中国黄河和长江流域。湖北出土的铅钡硅酸盐制品种类最齐全,而湖南的铅钡玻璃数量最多,其中一些遗址往往有不同种类的铅钡硅酸盐制品同出,如:湖北江陵九店楚墓和江陵望山楚墓均出土了釉砂和釉陶;九店楚墓还出土有玻璃。因此,无论在种类还是数量上,湖北和湖南的铅钡硅酸盐制品都明显超过其他地区。下面按照材质种类分别论述出土概况。
表1 战国时期铅钡硅酸盐制品出土地点和数量
Table1 Distribution and amounts of excavated lead-barium silicate products from the Warring States Period
铅钡釉砂主要出土于陕西、甘肃、四川、河南、湖北五省。战国早期的铅钡釉砂有蜻蜓眼和素面管珠两类:前者出自河南叶县大竹园双冢子楚墓和江苏鸿山邱承墩越墓[16];后者出自陕西黄陵寨头河墓地[10]。战国中期和晚期的蜻蜓眼铅钡釉砂见于内蒙古和林格尔县土城子古城[16]、湖北江陵九店[17]和河南新郑[18]的墓葬,总体以湖北、河南为多;而素面管珠则出自陕西新丰墓地、四川白果林墓地[7]和甘肃马家塬墓地[19]。此外,河南郑州有一批战国墓葬出土蜻蜓眼铅钡釉砂,具体分期不详[20]。从整体出土情况来看:素面釉砂珠主要出自陕西、甘肃、四川等西部地区;蜻蜓眼釉砂珠主要出自河南、湖北等中南部地区。铅钡釉砂均为小型珠饰,功能上属装饰品[16],多采用内芯成型工艺制胎。釉砂的三种施釉工艺——直接施釉、包埋施釉、风干施釉(亦称起霜法)均见于铅钡釉砂[7]。
相较于铅钡釉砂,铅钡釉陶在战国早期就显示出相当高的技术水准。最早被关注的是美国纳尔逊-阿特金斯艺术博物馆、美国波士顿艺术博物馆、英国大英博物馆、日本东京国立博物馆所藏的战国时期釉陶容器,其中纳尔逊-阿特金斯艺术博物馆和大英博物馆所藏的2件釉陶容器,相传出自河南洛阳金村和河南浚县[21]。目前最早的有明确考古背景的铅钡釉陶分别来自湖北和江苏。湖北望山楚墓战国早期M2出土了1件釉陶璜,胎体深黄色,中部有圆形穿孔,基体表面有浅蓝色铅钡釉层[22]。从器形来看,釉陶璜显然比素面釉砂珠的制作流程更为繁复,而最能代表铅钡釉陶技术高度的是战国早期江苏邱承墩越墓出土的1件多彩玲珑球[23](图1)。这件多彩玲珑球整体以陶为胎,呈半球形、镂空,胎体表面装饰白、红、蓝三色铅钡釉层构成蛇身效果,红色和白色釉层为表面基底,蓝色涂层为圆点状,大致均匀分布于红、白色基底上,呈现类似蜻蜓眼的外观。战国中晚期,湖北江陵望山楚墓和江陵九店楚墓出土了数量可观的釉陶管珠,和铅钡釉砂的情况一样,器形分为蜻蜓眼管珠和素面管珠两大类[16-17,24]。此外,甘肃马家塬墓地M1也出土了1件釉陶杯,经初步检测表面为铅钡釉[6]。釉陶通常先制胎体,再行上釉。从功能看,珠饰类铅钡釉陶也是装饰品,而釉陶璜则属礼器。
图1 江苏鸿山邱承墩战国早期越墓出土多彩玲珑球
Fig.1 Polychrome Linglongqiu unearthed from Qiuchengdun Cemetery (early Warring States Period) , Jiangsu Province
有三处遗址出土铅钡硅酸盐制品难以准确定性。安徽柴家沟M16(春秋晚期至战国早期)[25]、湖北当阳赵家湖楚墓(战国早期至晚期)[26]和河北元氏县南白楼墓(战国早期)[27]分别出土了铅钡硅酸盐制品。柴家沟墓出土的是蜻蜓眼珠,赵家湖楚墓出土的是素面管珠和蜻蜓眼珠,南白楼墓出土的是琉璃环。这件琉璃环外径4.45 cm、内径2.05 cm,器形规整,白色基体上涂饰有褐色纹饰,其上又有蓝色与土黄色纹饰。因当时技术手段限制或测试区域不明确而难以确定胎体所用原料,故这批铅钡硅酸盐制品的性质未能得到准确判定。杨益民等[13]曾采用无损CT技术分析完整的蜻蜓眼珠,很好地区分了釉陶与釉砂制品。期待这一技术能在未来被用于上述遗址的关键器物中,为器物的定性提供科学依据。
铅钡玻璃主要出土于战国至东汉晚期的墓葬中。从地域分布来看,战国时期铅钡玻璃大多出自山东[11]、河南[18,20]、甘肃[6]等黄河流域地区和湖南[28-31]、安徽[32]等长江流域地区,内蒙古和林格勒尔古城也出土了一些铅钡玻璃[30]。战国时期铅钡玻璃以素面管珠、蜻蜓眼珠和仿玉玻璃为主——前两者都为装饰品,仿玉玻璃则具有礼器功能。蜻蜓眼珠于战国早期出现,最早的一例来自山东鲁国故城遗址,至战国晚期蜻蜓眼珠在陕西、甘肃、河南、湖南、广东均有出土。有意思的是,战国时期工艺难度较低的素面玻璃管珠主要来自晚期墓葬,年代晚于蜻蜓眼玻璃珠。仿玉玻璃璧出土范围较为集中,除1件出自安徽外,其余均来自湖南,这也进一步证实了湖南地区很可能是战国时期铅钡玻璃璧的制作中心[29]。玻璃的工艺与釉砂、釉陶不同:前者是在玻璃熔融状态下经热加工成型,除蜻蜓眼玻璃珠外,往往没有胎釉分层结构,整体均质;后两者则是先制作胎体后上釉,而后烧制完成。玻璃珠饰通常采用缠绕法和拉制法制成[33],仿玉玻璃则通常使用模具成型[31,34]。
铅钡玻璃作为中国古代特有的玻璃类型,其起源一直为学界关注。从旧大陆古玻璃发展史来看,存在一个从釉砂发展到真正玻璃的演进历程。按此逻辑,铅钡玻璃的出现似乎可以很自然地归因于铅钡釉砂。陕西寨头河战国早期墓地[10]的铅钡釉砂在一定程度上为该认识提供了证据。寨头河墓地存在两种略有差异的铅钡釉砂:第一种釉砂的胎釉均含铅和钡;第二种釉砂的釉层和胎体熔剂存在差异(图2)。第一种釉砂的釉层和胎体的成分构成和结构具有同质化特征,这种模糊胎釉区别的情况已向玻璃趋同,且基于当时的考古材料,铅钡玻璃集中出现于战国中期以后,年代晚于第一种铅钡釉砂,故此提出铅钡釉砂可视为铅钡玻璃的前身[7]。然而,2021年刊布的一批山东鲁国故城铅钡玻璃数据促使笔者重新审视上述认识。
图2 两类铅钡釉砂胎釉熔剂差异图[7,18,35]
Fig.2 Difference diagram of flux contents in glaze and body between two kinds lead-barium faience
鲁国故城一共出土了25件玻璃珠饰(图3),集中于战国早期的M52和战国中期或稍晚的M58。M52出土玻璃均为蜻蜓眼珠;M58除蜻蜓眼玻璃珠外,还出土有六棱形玻璃珠和圆管形玻璃珠。经检测分析的玻璃珠有7件,均为蜻蜓眼珠。宋健等[36]曾明确了1件七星纹套圈蜻蜓眼珠来自鲁国故城战国早期遗址M52,他们在文中展示了鲁国故城出土的7件蜻蜓眼珠照片。从蜻蜓眼珠的外观与编号来看,文中的7件蜻蜓眼珠与郭思克等[11]分析检测的样品应为同一批,其中就包含了经分析为铅钡玻璃的七星纹套圈眼珠(样品编号W000703),基本证实了铅钡玻璃的确于战国早期出现。
Fig.3 Glass eye beads unearthed from ancient Qufu City of the State of Lu, Shandong Province
鲁故城的铅钡玻璃是目前发现的年代最早的铅钡玻璃,其蜻蜓眼的造型显然受到春秋时期钠钙蜻蜓眼玻璃的影响,而铅钡熔剂又反映出强烈的本土特色,是利用本土原料制作域外风格的典型案例。根据前文战国时期铅钡硅酸盐制品的出土情况,可以确定铅钡硅酸盐的三个类型——铅钡釉砂、铅钡釉陶、铅钡玻璃在战国早期均已出现。这不仅意味着“铅钡釉砂是铅钡玻璃前身”的观点已不准确,也促使笔者重新思考鲁国故城铅钡蜻蜓眼玻璃来源于楚地的既有认识。因为截至目前,楚地发现的铅钡蜻蜓眼玻璃珠多为战国中晚期[29-31,38],时间上晚于鲁国故城的年代上限。崔剑锋等[29]曾发现,战国铅钡玻璃璧大多出土于楚地,且原料配方比较稳定,应是楚地所产。冯百龄[39]提出了以随枣走廊和湖南为中心的楚国核心区概念,而铅钡蜻蜓眼玻璃珠之间的原料配比存在差异,说明蜻蜓眼玻璃珠应有另外的配方,该现象既可能是楚地工匠有意选择的结果,也可能暗示了蜻蜓眼玻璃珠有另外的产地。山东鲁国故城的铅钡蜻蜓眼玻璃珠似乎支持了蜻蜓眼玻璃珠另有产地的推测。
当然,这并不意味着排除鲁国故城铅钡玻璃可能受到楚地或其他地区蜻蜓眼玻璃的影响。春秋末至战国初,蜻蜓眼玻璃珠在山西太原赵卿墓[40]、河南固始侯古堆M1[41]、江苏吴县吴国玉器窖藏[42]、山西长治分水岭M270、山东临淄郎家庄M1、河南洛阳中州路西工段M2717[33]、河南淅川徐家岭楚墓M10[43]和湖北随州擂鼓墩M1[44]与M2[45]都有发现。其中,侯古堆M1[46]、徐家岭楚墓M10、擂鼓墩M1与M2出土的蜻蜓眼玻璃珠经检测分析为钠钙玻璃。根据赵德云[47]对蜻蜓眼珠类型的划分,徐家岭楚墓和擂鼓墩M2所出蜻蜓眼均为同心圆层状眼珠,而鲁国故城也有该类型蜻蜓眼玻璃(图3b),显示出西方钠钙蜻蜓眼珠对本土铅钡蜻蜓眼珠的影响。在山东鲁国故城遗址所发现的不仅是目前年代较早的铅钡硅酸盐制品,而且它们的风格可能受到钠钙蜻蜓眼玻璃的影响,这一发现改变了以往铅钡硅酸盐制品多发现于南方长江流域的格局。
长江流域的湖北[24]和江苏[23]出土了目前最早的一批铅钡硅酸盐制品——铅钡釉陶。铅钡釉陶甫一出现即表现了卓越的技术水平,尤其是江苏邱承墩越墓出土的多彩玲珑球。釉陶的胎体具备良好的塑性,为制作难度较大的多彩玲珑球提供了可能。近年,郎剑锋和崔剑锋[48]证实了山东临淄战国晚期墓出土的一件陶罍为铅釉陶(图4),这是目前经过正式考古发掘的最早的铅釉陶,该发现结束了铅釉陶“战国起源说”和“西汉起源说”的争论。
Fig.4 Glazed pottery Lei unearthed from Anledian Village in Linzi, Shandong Province
关于铅钡釉陶起源问题,董俊卿等[22]、陈彦堂[49]、陈禹来等[50]都认为铅钡釉陶与铅钡玻璃存在联系。笔者不仅赞同这些学者的观点,而且认为包含铅钡釉砂在内的三类铅钡硅酸盐制品都存在相互联系。铅钡釉砂、铅钡釉陶、铅钡玻璃不仅同样使用铅钡熔剂,而且目前最早的发现均包含蜻蜓眼造型(最早的铅钡釉砂出自战国早期河南平顶山叶县大竹园双冢子楚墓M1;最早的铅钡釉陶出自战国早期江苏邱承墩越墓的多彩玲珑球,玲珑球不是典型风格的蜻蜓眼,但表面中心圆斑外层绘有红色圆圈,周围环绕蓝色小圆斑的装饰风格,显然具有复合蜻蜓眼纹的效果;最早的铅钡玻璃出自战国早期鲁国故城遗址M52,为蜻蜓眼珠造型),这都暗示三者之间存在联系。笔者将目前已发表的、能够准确定性的铅钡硅酸盐制品数据进行汇总,以主要熔剂PbO与BaO质量分数为横坐标,以SiO2质量分数为纵坐标做散点图(图5)。如图5所示:铅钡釉砂的主量成分数据较为分散;铅钡釉陶明显分为两个聚集区;铅钡玻璃的主量成分相较而言更为稳定。虽然三者的主量成分含量存在一定差异(需要说明的是,造成铅钡釉砂、铅钡釉陶、铅钡玻璃主量成分存在差异,既有配方本身不同的因素,又有分析测试手段不同的因素,同时也有风化腐蚀的因素),但也可以明显看到三者有部分数据重叠(图5灰色圆框区),一定程度上支持了三者存在相互联系的认识。
Fig.5 Scatter diagram of main components in lead-barium silicate products from the Warring States Period
无论战国早期的铅钡釉砂珠还是釉陶,对于铅钡玻璃而言都不是先驱般的存在。与其认为它们之间存在前后相继的关系,不如说它们更多地具有共时性的联系——特别是在战国早期阶段,它们更像是助熔剂类型的“革新”在不同材质上的应用。现在的问题在于战国早期产生铅钡硅酸盐制品的契机是什么,以及铅钡熔剂的矿料又来自哪个或哪些地区。铅钡硅酸盐制品得以产生的契机虽然尚未可知,但学界普遍认同战国时期的楚地可能是铅钡玻璃的生产中心。近年来,董俊卿等[30]、李青会等[15]已把视野投向了楚地以外的地区,提出战国时期楚越文化区创造了铅钡硅酸玻璃。除铅钡硅酸盐制品外,战国时期同时存在钠钙玻璃、钾钙玻璃,特别是钾钙玻璃不仅与铅钡硅酸盐制品几乎同时出现,而且同一墓葬中往往共出,欲探究它们是如何产生历史动力的,可能需要更为广阔的视野。
铅钡硅酸盐制品自战国早期出现以来,绵延发展至东汉晚期,是一个包含釉砂、釉陶和玻璃的家族。为避免概念混淆,建议用“铅钡硅酸盐制品”指代以氧化铅和/或氧化钡为主要熔剂的硅酸盐制品,其中铅钡釉陶、铅钡釉砂、铅钡玻璃分别专指其胎体为陶质、石英砂质、完全玻璃化的制品,而对胎体材质不详的则仍统一用“铅钡硅酸盐制品”称之。
在系统梳理战国时期铅钡硅酸盐制品出土情况及工艺、用途概况的基础上,基于鲁国故城发现了目前最早的铅钡玻璃,笔者重新审视了“胎釉成分相同的铅钡釉砂是铅钡玻璃的前身”的观点,认为在战国早期,铅钡釉砂、铅钡釉陶、铅钡玻璃可能更多地呈现共时性,而非历时性的联系。铅钡硅酸盐作为一个相互联系的整体,其最初产生的契机可能需要置于更广阔的视野下考察。
致谢:本研究得到中国社会科学院哲学社会科学创新工程项目(2021KGYJ022)项目的支持。讨论过程中,我们曾多次请教中国科学院上海光学精密机械研究所李青会研究员、刘松副研究员、董俊卿副研究员,国家博物馆文保院李沫馆员、山东大学文化遗产研究院李志敏博士、西北大学文化遗产学院谭宇辰博士、中国科学院空天信息创新研究院智宁博士提供了具体帮助,在此一并致以衷心的感谢!
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中图分类号: K876.3;K876.5
文献标识码: A
DOI: 10.16334/j.cnki.cn31-1652/k.20230302865
文章编号: 1005-1538(2024)03-0152-08
国家社科基金重大项目(18ZDA221)子课题“大报恩寺遗址出土舍利研究”资助;
收稿日期: 2023-03-30
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