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水域生态学：07 水环境

花匠小妙招
2026-01-10 12:04

1、4.3 湿地WetlandsOutlineDefinition Types of wetlandsFunctions and valuesActivities affecting wetlandsConservation and management4.3.1 DefinitionWetland 通常指开阔水域 (open-water habitats) 以及季节性或永久性淹水的(waterlogged)陆地; 由于土地使用上的冲突(conflicting)，湿地范围的界定是有争议的(controversial)。湿地包括从永久淹水的区域到生长季节某些时期阶段性水饱和并生长有水生植物 (hyd

2、rophytic)的地区。International DefinitionIUCN, 1971IUCN- International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural ResourcesAreas of marsh, fen, peatland or water, whether natural or artificial, permanent or temporary, with water that is static or flowing, fresh, brackish, or salt including areas o

3、f marine water, the depth of which at low tide does not exceed 6 meters, a wide variety of habitat types including rivers, coastal areas, and even coral reefs.湿地公约中的定义不论其为天然或人工、长久或暂时性的沼泽地，泥炭地或水域地带，静止或流动的淡水、半咸水、咸水水体，包括低潮时水深不超过6 m的水域；同时还包括邻接湿地的河湖沿岸、沿海区域以及位于湿地范围内的岛屿或低潮时水深不超过6 m的海水水体按此定义，湿地包括湖泊、河流、沼泽(森林

4、沼泽和草本沼泽)、滩地(河滩、湖滩和沿海滩涂)、盐湖、盐沼以及海岸带区域的珊瑚礁、海草区、红树林和河口等类型Scientific Definition-U.S Fish and Wildlife ServiceWetlands are lands transitional between terrestrial and aquatic systems where the water table is usually at or near the surface or the land is covered by shallow water. Wetlands must have one or

5、more of the following three attributes: (1) at least periodically, the land supports predominantly hydrophytes (水生植物), (2) the substrate is predominantly undrained hydric soil(水渍土), and (3) the substrate is nonsoil and is saturated with water or covered by shallow water at some time during the growi

6、ng season of each year.Legal DefinitionU.S Army Corps of EngineersThe term “wetlands”means those areas that are inundated or saturated by surface or ground water at a frequency and duration sufficient to support, and that under normal circumstances do support, a prevalence of vegetation typically ad

7、apted for life in saturated soil conditions. Wetlands generally include swamps, marshes, bogs, and similar areas.4.3.2 有关湿地的术语和湿地类型Wetland Terms and Types4.3.2.1 Terms Used to Describe WetlandsAquatic Bed: Areas of shallow permanent water that are dominated by plants that grow on or below the surfac

8、e of the water.Bog: A peat(泥炭)-accumulating wetland that has no significant inflow or outflow of ground or surface water and because of its acidic nature, supports acidophilic vegetation, particularly Sphagnum mosses(泥炭藓).Bottomland: Lowlands (usually forested) along streams and rivers that are peri

9、odically flooded.Estuary: A marsh system associated with the drowned mouth of a large river.Fen: A peat-accumulating wetland that receives some inputs of ground water or drainage from surrounding mineral soils which typically results in alkaline waters and usually supports grass-like vegetation.Mars

10、h: A frequently or continually inundated wetland characterized by grass-like and other emergent vegetation adapted to saturated soil conditions. In European terminology a marsh has a mineral soil substrate and does not accumulate peat.Mire: Synonymous with any peat-accumulating wetland (European def

11、inition)Moor: Synonymous with peatland (European definition) Muskeg(泥炭沼泽、厚苔泽): Large expanses of peatlands; particularly used in Canada and AlaskaPeatland(泥炭地): A generic term for any wetland that accumulates partially decayed plant matter.Playa: Term used in southwestern United States for marshlike

12、 ponds similar to potholes but with a different geologic origin.Poor Fen: A peat-accumulating wetland that is transitional between a true bog and a true fen.Pothole(壶穴): A shallow, marshlike pond, particularly as found in the Dakotas and central Canadian provinces.Reedswamp. Marsh dominated by Phrag

13、mites (common reed); term used particularly in eastern Europe. Slough(泥沼): A swamp or shallow lake system in the northern and midwestern United States. A slowly flowing shallow swamp or marsh in southeastern U.S.Swamp: A wetland dominated by trees or shrubs (U.S. definition). In Europe a forested fe

14、n or reedgrass-dominated wetland is often called a swamp, for example, reedswamp.Vernal Pool (间隙塘): An ephemeral wetland usually in a forested area.Wet Meadow (草甸): Grassland with waterlogged soil near the surface but without standing water for most of the year.Wet Prairie (草原): Similar to a marsh b

15、ut water levels usually intermediate between a marsh and a wet meadow4.3.2.2 湿地类型1、海洋和海岸湿地Costal wetland 2、内陆湿地Inland Wetland 3、人工湿地Artificial Wetland 海洋和海岸湿地A、浅海水域B、海床C、珊瑚礁D、岩石性海岸E、沙或鹅卵石（含沙丘）海岸F、河口水域G、潮间带滩涂H、海岸咸水沼泽（不含潮间带）I、红树林/潮间带森林J、海岸咸水湖（含泻湖）K、海岸淡水湖L、三角洲内陆湿地M、河流/溪流/小河：长期性N、河流/溪流/小河：间歇性O、淡水湖：长期性P、

16、淡水湖：季节性或间歇性Q、咸水湖和沼泽：长期性R、咸水湖和沼泽：季节性或间歇性S、淡水沼泽/池塘：长期性T、淡水沼泽/池塘：季节性或间歇性U、泥炭藓沼泽V、苔原/高山湿地W、灌木为主的湿地X、树木为主的湿地（含沼泽林）Y、淡水泉（含绿洲）Z、地热湿地人工湿地a、鱼/虾类池塘b、农场池塘/储水池c、稻田类灌溉地d、季节性泛洪农业用地e、盐田/盐碱滩f、水库 g、运河h、污水处理场 i、取土场/烧砖场/石场湿地生态环境类型典型渔业功能1、海洋和海岸湿地A、浅海水域网箱、筏式养殖，近岸渔业B、海床底栖类水产生物栖息地C、珊瑚礁典型热带生态类型D、岩石性海岸养殖，附着类水产生物栖息地F、河口水域河口渔

17、业生态类型G、潮间带滩涂贝类养殖H、海岸咸水沼泽（不含潮间带）贝类养殖I、红树林/潮间带森林典型潮间带生态类型J、海岸咸水湖（含泄湖）水产养殖K、海岸淡水湖水产养殖L、三角洲水产养殖，产卵场，幼鱼索饵2、内陆湿地M、河流/溪流/小河捕捞、养殖，各类渔业生态系统O、淡水湖同上Q、咸水湖和沼泽同上S、淡水沼泽/池塘：长期性水产养殖3、人工湿地a、鱼/虾类池塘水产养殖c、稻田类灌溉地稻田养鱼e、盐田/盐碱滩水产养殖f、水库捕捞、水产养殖，渔业生态系统我国湿地类型根据我国湿地资源现状以及湿地公约对湿地的分类系统，分为以下5类沼泽湿地湖泊湿地河流湿地滨海湿地人工湿地沼泽湿地我国现有沼泽湿地1370.03

18、万hm2，共分为8个类型藓类沼泽草本沼泽沼泽化草甸灌丛沼泽森林沼泽内陆盐沼地热湿地淡水泉或绿洲湿地湖泊湿地我国现有湖泊湿地835.15万hm2，分为4类永久性淡水湖季节性淡水湖永久性咸水湖季节性咸水湖河流湿地我国现有河流湿地820.70万hm2，分为3类永久性河流季节性河流洪泛平原湿地滨海湿地我国现有滨海湿地594.17万hm2，分为12型浅海水域潮下水生层珊蝴礁岩石性海岸潮间沙石海滩潮间淤泥海滩潮间盐水沼泽红树林沼泽海岸性咸水湖海岸性淡水湖河口水域三角洲湿地人工湿地我国人工湿地资源比较丰富，其中库塘(水库和大型池塘)228.5hm2，共分为10型水产池塘水塘灌溉地农用泛洪湿地盐田蓄水区采掘区

19、废水处理场所运河、排水渠地下输水系统Swamps (林沼) Swamps 森林沼泽，常以其上生长的树木种类来划分Conifer (针叶树)Swamps: 白杉white cedar,西方金钟柏northern white cedar,加拿大铁杉eastern hemlock,北美白松eastern white pine,北美脂松pitch pine,厚皮刺果松, 火炬松loblolly pine, 黑云杉black spruce Hardwood (阔叶树)Swamps:红槭red maple, 黑柳black willow, 白杨aspen, 棉白杨cottonwood, 白蜡树ashes,

20、榆树elms,二色栎swamp white oak, 橡树pin oak, 紫树tupelo, 和桦树birches Shrub (灌木) Swamps: 灌木如美国梧桐buttonwood, 柳willow,桤木alders，山茱萸dogwoodCypress (柏树) Swamps: 落羽松,美国水松bald cypressA freshwater swamp in northeast Texas. Freshwater swamps are inland areas permanently saturated or covered by water and dominated by tr

21、ees, such as bald cypress. The water surface is covered by a floating carpet of tiny aquatic plants.Marshes (草沼)Marsh 是一大类以草本植物为优势的沼泽地，典型的沼泽植物包括灯心草rushes, 芦苇reeds, 莎草sedges,香蒲cattails, and grasses周期性被静水或缓流水覆盖的地方，通常与ponds, rivers, streams, inland lakes等相联偶有沙质土 sandy soils, 但通常是富含有机质、营养丰富的细土有很多湿地类型以草样

22、植物为主，被划入marsh 类型中A tidal creek at high tide on the high marsh高位盐沼. Tall Spartina grows along the banksGlasswort (厚岸草) dominates highly saline areas on the salt marsh. The plant, which turns red in fall, is a major food of over-wintering geese.The Horicon marsh in Wisconsin is an outstanding example

23、of a northern marsh with well developed emergent vegetation and patches of open water- an ideal environment for wildlife.The distinctive cowlick sweep of salt meadow cordgrass 网茅nest to a stand of saltgrass. Bayberry(野梅属) in the background marks the shrub zoneBogs (酸性泥炭沼)Bogs 泥炭湿地mossy wetlands水几乎全部

24、源于雨、雪，几乎不流动，含氧低，酸性很强，通常低温由于低温和低溶氧，有机质很难被真菌和细菌分解，因而形成泥炭(peat)泥炭藓Sphagnum (peat moss 泥炭苔) 常见，一些耐酸的常绿树木和灌木繁生，也生长有兰花Orchids, 睡莲water lilies, 狗鱼草pickerel weed, 酸果蔓(蔓越橘) cranberries,越橘 blueberries食虫植物Insect-eating plants 如瓶子草 pitcher plants、茅膏菜 sundew也常在泥炭沼出现常见动物有Turtles, frogs, insects, 和食虫鸟类，鱼类少见低溶氧之故Bo

25、g 典型的沼生植物PeatlandPeatlandSome plants in the bogFens (弱酸性或碱性泥炭沼)Fens: 另一类类似泥炭沼的湿地与泥炭沼的相似之处：冰川退缩时形成；有泥炭积累与泥炭沼的不同之处：有一些来水由溪流和地下水补给，水交换率较大，酸性较弱，因而水和土壤营养较丰富禾草和莎草是常见植物，看上去象草甸 meadows通常出现于bogs附近，且多数最终发育成为bogs常见动物有昆虫如蚊子mosquitos、马蝇horseflies，两栖动物，食虫鸟类，哺乳动物如鼩鼱(shrews)、仓鼠(voles), 和麝鼠(muskrats).Wicken Fen Natu

26、re Reserve, CambridgeshireFenPrairie Potholes(草原壶穴)最后一次冰川期结束时，退缩的冰川在地面上留下数以百万计形态和大小各异的凹洼。雨雪使之积水。因多数位于草原且象圆形的壶，故名随大小和雨水的数量，有些是暂时的，有些是永久的壶穴周围生长的纸草(Bulrushes)、莎草(sedges)、香蒲(cattails ) 等，为鸟类和其他动物提供了大量的营巢地和隐匿地涵养水分、吸收对河流有害的沉积物和营养盐有时也称为Slough(泥沼)Potholes dot the glacial landscape of the north central U. S.

27、 A.为流域所产生的洪水和沉积物提供临时储存地作为许多河滨植物群落生长及所支持的野生动物的主要生境河流脉动概念The flood-pulse concept 用以归纳水-陆动态交互作用如何为河流和河漫滩生物区系riverine and floodplain biota所利用exploited河边湿地Riparian wetlandsA riparian forest in AlabamaFloodplain Schematic of the flood-pulse concept垂直方向放大了的河漫滩断面，示一年水文周期中的5个瞬间，左边描述了营养物质的流动，右边是鱼类典型生活史特征typic

28、al life history traits of fish. 枯水期，水位开始上涨大多数河流繁殖鱼类开始产卵涨水期，产卵，幼鱼及其捕食者向岸活动，鱼类和昆虫的生产力高高水位，幼鱼和成鱼分散摄食底部可能溶氧不足水位开始消退多数鱼类向深水区洄游枯水期鱼类进入主河道（干流或支流）及永久性湖泊4.4 河口EstuaryAn estuary is a coastal body of water, partly surrounded by land, with access to the open ocean and a large supply of fresh water from river河口区

29、的特殊性Estuaries are special environments at the mouths of rivers, especially where outflow partially enclosed (such as barrier islands).独一无二的生境，淡水和咸水交接的界面典型的高生产力区域，营养盐的输入和底部沉积物与上层水之间迅速的营养交换其边缘通常为大片的有挺水植物生长的潮间带沼泽河口区低潮位和高潮位时垂直和水平的盐度分层，示高潮位时涌入的海水使向河口方向盐度升高，低潮位时盐度降低，同时请注意盐度随深度而增加，因为轻的淡水流在密度大的咸水之上河口区淡水和咸水

30、的循环形成一个营养陷井(nutrient trap). 在下部突入的海水盐度楔形成一个表层较轻的淡水流和下方较重的咸水逆流。逆流捕捉营养并将之带向潮间带沼泽，逆流也将浮游植物送回河口，repopulating the water.河口是地球上最高产的生态系统之一，比相邻的海洋和河流都高潮汐的作用，促使营养盐迅速循环，并带走代谢废物河流从陆地携带营养输送到河口水浅，阳光穿透强大量植物的存在，既提供了 an extensive photosynthetic carpet ，其根茎机械地“捕捉”碎屑 trap detritus，从而为碎屑食物链提供基础红树林Mangrove forest一些重要经

31、济鱼类的繁殖场和肥育场固定沉积物防止海岸冲蚀风暴潮的屏障红树林 MangroveMangle (西班牙语，染料)+ Grove (英语，树林)热带、亚热带潮间带滩涂上生长的由木本植物组成的乔木和灌木林，统称红树林红树植物：只能在潮水经常性淹没的潮间带生长和繁衍后代的植物，并有气生根、支柱根和海水传播繁殖体等适合潮间带生活的专一性适应形态特征半红树植物：陆生耐沿性木本植物，两栖性，无专一性形态特征红树植物非分类学词汇生态趋同适应全球70种东方类群，60种：非洲东岸、亚洲、东太平洋海岸、澳洲西方类群，12种：美洲东西海岸、非洲西海岸我国，12科15属27种，8省区；主要红树科植物，丹宁，木材红，

32、树皮可提丹宁做染料（美洲印第安人土语的音译，mangle）红树林的生态适应海水淡化器、叶表泌盐、节水大部分，根系体液浓度很高，-水，拒盐少数e.g.桐花树、白骨壤，叶表分泌排盐生理干旱，叶片-革质肉质气孔下陷光亮绒毛等根系支柱根，e.g.红海榄呼吸根：指状e.g.白骨壤，笋状e.g.海桑膝状根：木榄、海莲板状根：秋茄、银叶树气生根：红海榄、白骨壤表面根：桐花树、海漆红海榄的支柱根广西，树高46m，支柱根高12.5m Costa Rica，合式红树，支柱根高达4m白骨壤的指状呼吸根，1025cm海桑的呼吸根，可长高加粗，一般11.5m，记录3m木榄的膝状根，1530cm秋茄的板状根银叶树的板状

33、根可高达1.7m红海榄的气生根海漆的表面根红树林的生长适应性胎生苗vivpary显胎生，红树科植物，幼苗突破果皮胚轴苗，1560cm隐胎生cryptovivipary，桐花树、白骨壤，非红树科防腐防食丹宁（树皮，830%）苦涩，防啃食，枝叶、果和胎生苗广谱抗菌，抗病力络合、螯合，解毒esp.苗漂流过程中抗海水腐蚀1. 木榄2. 红茄苳3. 木榄属一种4. 白骨壤a新萌发b.胚芽生长5. 桐花树a. 果实b. 单个幼果c.发芽果实木榄的显胎生苗红树的显胎生苗大红树的显胎苗白骨壤的隐胎生果实红树林的直接利用木材耐腐蚀能源（薪材、木炭）-水浸泡绿色食品（白骨壤等果实）-去除丹宁青饲料碘、盐，助消化促

34、生长、叶片营养价值高于苜蓿海洋药物eg老鼠勒：消肿解毒止痛，治疗淋巴结肿大、肝脾肿痛、乙型肝炎、男性不育症、神经痛、劳损等蜜源植物染料绿肥红树林的生态功能生物多样性与碎屑食物链动物食品源近海渔业的能源林间养殖场环境净化造陆和海岸减灾观光旅游急剧消失中的红树林国家原有面积(ha)/ 年代现有面积(ha)/年代减少%印度尼西亚180万/197590万/199450其中Sulawesi11万/19653万/199473菲律宾40万/192014万/199465越南40万/195025万/198337.5中国4.8万/1950初1.5万/1990初70其中：广东2.1万/1950初3813/1990初

35、82Red mangroves (Phizophora mangle). The stiltlike roots that support the tree grow deeper water as well as into the mudflat exposed by low tide. Many animals live in the complex root system of mangrove forests. This photo was taken along the coast of Florida, near Miami珊瑚礁Coral Reefs珊瑚礁是特殊的海洋生态系统：浅

36、水温暖水域可能在下沉或侵蚀的火山上发育，形成环状的atoll (环礁)高生产力：大量营养源于陆地侧的侵蚀或/和富含营养的深水流遇到礁石后上涌生物多样性高，大堡礁(Great Barrier Reefs)，鱼类1500余种。Coral reef at Manado, IndonisiaCoral reefKelp forest of Macrocystis pyrifera off the coast of California4.3.3 湿地的功能和价值 Function and value功能 Function鱼类和野生动物栖息地受胁和濒危动物栖息地水质净化沉积物控制波浪和侵蚀的屏障涵养水源

37、洪水存储与运输Fish and Wildlife Habitat (vital habitat, natures nurseries, migration stations) Threatened and Endangered Species HabitatWater Pollution Control (water clearer)Sediment Control (silt catcher)Barrier to Waves and Erosion (erosion control)Water Supply (water supplier)Flood Storage and Conveyan

38、ce (flood control)A lagoon formed behind coastal sand dunes in Australia. A black swan sits on the its nest among the reeds in the center of the pictureMassed flamingos at Lake Nakuru, Kenya, with the Rife Valley wall in the backgroundAn American alligator (Alligator mississippiensis) basking at the

39、 edge of a shallow freshwater lake in the Florida Everglade价值Values娱乐和美学价值 Recreation and Aesthetic Values狩猎、渔业 Hunting, fishing, trapping水质净化 Water Quality Maintenance供水 Water Supply食品和纤维 Food and Fiber Production防洪 Flood Protection水土保持 Sedimentation and Erosion Control历史和考古 Historic and Archeologi

40、cal Values文化、哲学和精神价值 Cultural, Philosophical, and Psychological Values洪泛平原淡水沼泽泥炭地沼泽森林Functions 地下水+ + +地下水排放+ + +防洪+ + + +水土流失控制+ +-沉积物和有毒物滞留+ + + + +营养物滞留+ + + + +生物量+ +-+风暴防护-+娱乐/旅游+各种类型的湿地对人类社会的价值各种类型的湿地对人类社会的价值续洪泛平原淡水沼泽泥炭地沼泽森林Products木材+-+ +野生动物+ + + + +渔业+ + +-+放牧+ + +-农业+ +-供水+Attributes生物多样性+

41、 +文化 +4.3.4 影响湿地的人类活动一些人类活动可影响湿地的功能灌水 Flooding排水 Draining土地使用改变 Land Use Changes 挖泥 Dredging填埋 Filling砍伐 Vegetation Cutting外来种入侵 Exotic Species Invasion使用有害化学物 Using Harmful Chemicals旅游的过度开发 Recreational Overuse洪泛平原淡水沼泽泥炭地林沼排水 (农业、林业、灭蚊等)+ + + + +挖泥和河流渠化+ +-填埋 (垃圾填埋和工业发展)+ + +-农业用地+-筑坝（防洪、灌溉）+ + +-污

42、染物和沉积物倾倒+ + +-采掘（泥炭、煤、石砾等）+-+ + +地下水抽提+ +-Threats to the maintenance of particular groups of functioning wetlands. freshwater marshes for this purpose are extensive wetlands often associated with lakes, peatlands include large areas of muskeg, blanket bog and wet tundra and swamp forest include boreal forest wetland (From Dugan 1994)Some direct and indirect threats to wetlandsDirect threatsIndirect