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艺术史话：古埃及（03）

花匠小妙招
2024-11-02 09:04

哈夫拉坐像

Khafre Enthroned

这个雕像由闪长岩（片麻岩斜长岩）制成，人物所呈现的“坐姿”是展示法老形象的基本程式之一。

The statue was made of diorite (anorthosite gneiss), and the "seated" posture of the figure was one of the basic conventions for representing the pharaoh.

哈夫拉略显僵硬地坐在王座上面，凝视着远方。头巾正面的眼镜蛇头饰和假胡须是法老的典型象征。一条遮住腰部的短裙，凸显了他年轻、富有活力的身体，肌肉轮廓非常的明显。象征着王权的荷鲁斯位于法老的后面，它用翅膀保护着法老的头部。王座的腿部是由狮子的形象抽象而成的，狮子同样象征着王权。在王座的侧面雕刻着象征着上埃及的莲花和象征着下埃及的纸莎草花，两者交织代表着法老对埃及全境行使王权。总之，这件作品集中体现了象征王权的典型元素，“王权”这一主题得到很好的体现。

Khafre sitting rigidly on his throne, gazing into the distance; the cobra headdress on the front of his head cloth and the false beard were typical symbols of the pharaoh. The kilt, which covered his waist, highlighted his young and toned body, and the muscle. Horus, a symbol of kingship, was behind the pharaoh, protecting his head with its wings. The legs of the throne were abstracted from the image of the lion, representing kingship as well. The side of the throne was carved with the lotus that symbolizes Upper Egypt and the papyrus that symbolizes Lower Egypt, a pattern that represents the pharaoh's exercise of royal authority over all of Egypt. In short, the symbol of kingship appears several times in this work, and the theme of "kingship" was well-reflected.

我们接下来聊一下这个雕像是如何制作的。哈夫拉雕像是一个典型的“减法”雕像。所谓“减法”是指在雕塑的创作过程当中，对于材料的处理方式仅限于“移除”，也就是雕塑当中“雕”的这个方面，通过去除掉多余的部分来完成所需要的形象。这种方式常见于硬质材料的作品，例如花岗岩和大理石等等，容错率相对较低。而与之相对的，“加法”是指对于材料的处理方式以“添加”为主，也就是雕塑当中“塑”的这个方面，通过不断地补充材料来完成所需要的形象。这种方式常见于软性材料的作品，例如粘土和塑料等等，容错率相对较高。

Let's move on to talk about how this statue was made. This work is a typical "subtractive" statue. "Subtraction" means removing excess material from the work until the desired form is reached. This is the aspect of "carving" in sculpture. This method is often used for work in hard materials, such as granite and marble. There is no way to remedy a mistake once it was made. In contrast, "addition" means that the work is completed by constantly adding materials. This is the "modeling" aspect of sculpture. This method is commonly used for works in soft materials, such as clay and plastic. It can be remedied if a mistake was made.

哈夫拉雕像是从一个大的，整块的立方体石块开始的。雕刻家需要先在石头的四个立面上面绘制出哈夫拉的正面，背面和两个侧面的轮廓，然后向内把每一面多余的石头凿掉，直到相邻的两个平面呈直角相接。到这里，石块就变成了一个块状雕像，雕像的大形（主要部分和主要关系）就已经确定了。然后下一步就是雕刻家需要在块状雕像的基础之上进一步明确各部分的形状和各部分之间的关系，雕刻出法老的面部，身体，王座和猎鹰等部分。到这里雕像基本成型，但是非常粗糙。最后一步就是对“粗雕像”进行精加工。在粗雕像的基础之上进一步明确各部分的形状，并且刻画细节，如法老的手指，王座侧面的花纹和猎鹰的翅膀等等。然后用打磨材料将雕像打磨光滑，这样雕像就完成了。

The statue of Khafre starts with a large, cube-shaped stone block. The sculptor needs to first outline the front, back, and two profile views of the Khafre on the four vertical faces of the stone, and then chiseled the excess stone on each face away until the two adjacent planes come together, meeting at right angles. Here, the stone became a block statue, and the main parts of the statue and the relationship of each part were defined. In the next step, the sculptor needs to further define the shape of each part and the relationship between them, carving out the face, body, and throne of the pharaoh and the falcon. Here the statue was formed, but it was very rough. The last step is to finish the "rough statue". On top of the rough statue, the shape of each part was further defined, and details such as the pharaoh's fingers, the pattern on the side of the throne, and the wings of the falcon were carved. Finally, the statue was finished by abrasion, rubbing, and grinding the surface.

看到这里大家就会发现，几千年来，人们所使用的工具会不断变化，但雕像的制作流程基本没变。

As you can see here, the tools people used to make the statues have changed over the millennia, but the steps have remained the same.

哈夫拉雕像很好的体现了埃及艺术“概念性”或者“象征性”的特点。作者并没有再现法老的真实形象，而是表现法老的理想形象。他借由法老的形象实际表现的是王权。

The "conceptual" or "symbolic" character of Egyptian art was well reflected in the statue of Khafre. The artist did not use the statue to represent the real image of Pharaoh, but the ideal image of Pharaoh. The image of Pharaoh represents kingship.

哈夫拉的形象正面、平衡、静止、对称。没有个性，没有运动，没有时间。他的双手放在大腿上，双腿并拢；整体造型上没有突出的部分，结构紧凑且稳固；他的身体和王座融为一体。法老、王座与王权在石头当中永恒。在“王权”这个创作主题上，这件作品在材料和造型上完美统一。从我们今天还能看到这件作品的角度来说，某种程度上哈夫拉确实实现了他的目的，他让王权得到了永恒。

The image of Pharaoh is frontal, balanced, static, and symmetrical; without personality, without movement, without time. His hands are on his thighs, and his legs are close together; This work is compact and solid, with no projecting parts. His body and the throne merged into one. Pharaoh, throne, and kingship are eternal in stone. This work perfectly embodies the theme of "kingship" in material and form. In the sense that we can still see this work today, Khafre did achieve his purpose; he made kingship eternal.

“正面、平衡、静止、对称”，这是古王国时期法老雕像的基本程式，同时，这也成为了之后大多数法老雕像的标准形式。

"Frontal, balanced, static and symmetrical", that is, the basic convention of pharaoh statues in the Old Kingdom period, and it became the standard form of most pharaoh statues afterward.

在聊完“坐姿”的雕像之后，我们接下来再来欣赏一个“站姿”的作品。作为基本程式，“坐姿”通常用来表现单人形象，而“站姿”则既可以表现单人形象也可以表现多人形象。

After the "seated" statue, we move on to a "standing" work. As a basic convention, "sitting" is usually used to represent a single figure, while "standing" can be used to represent both single and multiple figures.

门卡拉与王后（卡梅尔内布提二世）

Menkaure and Queen（Khamerernebty II）

哈夫拉的继任者是门卡拉。在门卡拉金字塔的河谷神庙当中发现了他和他妻子（可能是卡梅尔内布提）的双人雕像。

Khafre's successor was Menkaure. A double statue of him and his wife (probably Khamerernebty) was found in the valley temple of the Pyramid of Menkaure.

这个雕像是由杂砂岩雕刻而成的。两个人站在一个方形的底座上面，他们身后有一个石柱作支撑。门卡拉脸颊圆润，鼻子坚挺，嘴唇饱满；他握紧拳头，年轻的身体笔直而强壮。王后以类似的姿势站立，她的右臂环绕着法老的腰部，左手则有些僵硬地搭在法老的左臂上；她那件薄而贴身的衣服凸显了她丰满的身体和柔和的曲线。两个人面向前方，大小相近。在法老的面部、耳朵和脖子上面还留有红色涂料的痕迹，王后的头发上面也有黑色涂料的痕迹。

This statue was made of greywacke (graywacke). The two figures stand on a square base, and they were supported by a stone pillar behind them. Menkaure had round cheeks, a fleshy nose, and a full mouth; he clenched his fists, and the young body was straight and strong. The queen stood in a similar position, her right arm was around the pharaoh's waist and her left hand rested, if stiffly, on his left arm; her sheer, close-fitting garment revealed the fullness of her body and her soft curves. They face forward and were similar in size. Traces of red paint remain on the pharaoh's face, ears and neck, as do traces of black on the queen's hair.

这件作品有两个地方很有意思。首先是这两个人的“夫妻相”。

There are two interesting things about this work. The first is their "couple face".

他们俩的面部十分相似，就像是把同一个头放在了不同的身体上，这可能还是因为雕刻家追求概念美的结果。理想的身体和面部都是标准化的，模式化的。追求概念美往往会导致审美趋同。

Their faces were so similar that it was as if the same head had been placed on different bodies, which may still be the result of the sculptor's pursuit of conceptual beauty. The ideal body and face are standardized and patterned. The pursuit of conceptual beauty often leads to aesthetic homogeneity.

其次是他们的站姿并没有被描绘成双脚并拢的标准站姿。他们的左脚都向前迈出一步，似乎是在前进。但是他们的上半身非常僵硬，胯部也几乎没有变化，从正面几乎看不出来两个人前行的动态。

The second is that they were not depicted standing with their feet together in a standard stance. They both took a step forward with their left feet, seemingly advancing. But their bodies were so stiff and their hips barely moved that it was almost impossible to tell from the front that they were moving forward.

很多我们现在看到的古埃及雕像都是只有石头天然的颜色，但其实很多的埃及雕像都是着色的。而且和僵硬死板的法老雕像相比，其他人物的雕像会以相对生动、轻松的方式呈现出来。例如在美杜姆金字塔以北的一处马斯塔巴当中发现的一个彩绘石灰石雕像就描绘了拉霍特普王子和他的妻子诺菲尔特的形象。

Many of the ancient Egyptian statues we see today are only the natural color of the stone, but many of the Egyptian statues were colored. And compared with the stiff and rigid statues of pharaohs, statues of other figures would be presented in a relatively vivid and relaxed manner. For example, a pair of painted limestone statues found in a mastaba north of the Meidum Pyramid depicted Prince Rahotep and his wife Nofret.

拉霍特普王子和他的妻子诺菲尔特雕像

The Statues of Rahotep and Nofret

拉霍特普是第四王朝的一位王子，他可能是斯尼夫鲁的儿子。拉霍特普和他的妻子诺菲尔特坐在一个白色的宝座上面，他们的名字和头衔用黑色的象形文字绘制在靠背上面。拉霍特普留着胡子，脖子上有一条项链，穿着白色的短裙。他双手紧握，右臂弯曲，右拳放在胸前，左拳放在大腿旁边。

Rahotep was a prince of the Fourth Dynasty who probably was the son of Sneferu. Rahotep and his wife Nofret sat on a white throne, and on the backs of which their names and titles were drawn in black hieroglyphics. Rahotep wore a mustache, a necklace around his neck, and a white kilt. His hands were clasped, his right arm was bent and the right fist was on his chest, his left fist was next to his thigh.

他的妻子诺菲尔特穿着一条白色的连衣裙，头发很厚重，头发上面还有一个带有花卉图案的发带。这里还有一种说法称她戴着厚重的假发，在假发下面可以看到她自然的发际线。她的脖子上戴有一个漂亮的宽领装饰物，这个装饰物和她的发带为这组近乎单色的雕像增添了几分色彩。两个人的眼睛均镶嵌着抛光的岩石晶体，使这组雕像看起来栩栩如生。

His wife, Nofret, was wearing a white dress with thick hair, and her head was crowned with a hairband with a floral motif. There was also a claim that she wore a heavy wig, under which her natural hairline could be seen. A beautiful broad collar ornament adorned her neck, and this ornament and her hairband added some color to the almost monochromatic statue. Their polished rock crystal inlaid eyes grant them a lifelike appearance.

这里需要大家注意一下这组雕像的配色。女性的配色要比男性的浅一些，男性为红棕色，女性为淡黄色。这是很多古埃及雕像的用色习惯。

Here you need to notice the color of the statue. Women's colors were lighter than men's, reddish brown for men and pale yellow for women. This was the color convention used in many ancient Egyptian statues.

卡佩尔雕像（村长像）

Statue of Kaaper（Ka-aper）

卡佩尔是第五王朝早期的一位抄写员或者祭司。人们对于他的生平了解不多，但他因其精美的木制雕像而著名（CG 34）。卡佩尔的马斯塔巴（Saqqara C8）位于萨卡拉的左塞尔金字塔以北，在同一地点还发现了一位女性的木制雕像（CG 33），这被认为是他的妻子。

Kaaper was a scribe or priest in the early Fifth Dynasty. Little is known about his life, but he is well known for his fine wooden statue (CG 34). This statue was found in Mastaba (Saqqara C8) of Kaaper, which is north of the Djoser Pyramid at Saqqara. A wooden statue of a woman (CG 33), which is thought to be his wife, was also found at the same site.

与石雕相比，古埃及幸存下来的木制雕像的数量非常少。因为埃及当地的木材质量不行；而高品质的木材，如雪松等，必须从黎巴嫩等地进口。另外，许多木制雕像可能都随着时间的推移而解体了。

The number of wooden statues that survived in ancient Egypt is very small, compared to stone statues. This is because the quality of wood in Egypt was not good; and high-quality wood, such as cedar, had to be imported from places like Lebanon. Another reason is that many of the wooden statues may have disintegrated over time.

卡佩尔的形象丰满、圆润，眼睛镶嵌着岩石晶体。他左脚向前，左手握着一根杖（现在为替代品）。当发掘的工人们发现它时，他们认为它与当地村庄的村长长得很像，于是将它称为“村长像”(阿拉伯语“Sheikh el-Balad”意为“村长”)。后来相比于卡佩尔像，村长像这个名字更为人们所熟知。

Kaaper is depicted as a corpulent man and his eyes are inlaid with rock crystals. His left foot is forward and he holds a staff (now substituted with a copy) in his left hand. When the workmen in charge of the excavation found it, they thought it resembled the mayor of the local village so much, and coined it "Sheikh el-Balad"(Arabic for "Headman of the village", Mayor). Later on, the name of the Sheikh el-Balad was better known than that of the Statue of Kaaper.

同样在萨卡拉，在一位名叫凯伊的官员的坟墓附近发现了一个约第五王朝早期的彩绘石灰石雕像。这个雕像表现了一个坐姿的男性形象，他可能是一个抄写员。

Also in Saqqara, a painted limestone statue from about the early Fifth Dynasty was found near the tomb of an official named Kai. The statue shows a seated male figure, possibly a scribe.

抄写员（书吏）坐像

The Seated Scribe

这个人物直接盘腿坐在了地上，上半身挺直；他的头部和身体都是正面的，表情十分专注；需要注意的是雕像的眼睛也镶嵌着抛光的岩石晶体。他的胸部和腹部有明显的脂肪堆积而且略显松弛，这里可以看出来他比较富裕而且不需要从事体力劳动。他穿着一个白色的短裙，短裙一直延伸到膝盖。他的手指和指甲都经过精心的塑造。他左手拿着一卷铺开的莎草纸，右手呈现出拿笔的动作。

The figure sits cross-legged directly on the ground and his upper body is straight; The head and body are frontal, and his facial expression is attentive; It is to be noted that the eyes of the statue are also inlaid with polished rock crystals. His chest and abdomen have obvious fat accumulation and are slightly flabby, which shows that he is well off and does not need to do physical labor. He wears a short white kilt stretching to his knees; his fingers and nails are delicately molded. He held a roll of spread papyrus in his left hand and his right hand was in a writing position.

这个雕像所表现的人物身份不明。有人认为这个雕像表现的是凯伊本人。通过他的姿势和被发现的地点，后来的学者们将其命名为“抄写员坐像”或者“书吏凯伊”。还有说法认为这个雕像是一个仆人雕像。

The identity of this statue is unknown. Some believe that the statue is Kai himself. Scholars have named the statue "Seated Scribe" or "Kai the Scribe" to the posture of the figure and the location where it was found. It is also believed that this statue is a servant statue.

仆人雕像是一种墓葬雕像，它们通常作为陪葬品使用。就像巫沙布提俑一样，许多法老和贵族都会制作他们的仆人，甚至宠物的雕像作为自己的陪葬品，这样他们就可以在来世继续陪伴自己了。比如这件屠夫雕像就可能是仆人雕像。

The servant statues were funerary statues, and they were often used as burial goods. Like the ushabti figurines, many pharaohs and nobles would make statues of their servants and pets as burial goods so that they could continue to serve them in the afterlife. For example, this Butcher Statue may be a servant statue.

在讲完了几个具有代表性的雕像之后，我们接着来聊一聊古王国时期的墓葬壁画和浮雕。壁画和浮雕也是很重要的艺术形式，而且相比于主要表现人物的雕塑，壁画和浮雕会记录大量有关于社会和文化的重要信息。壁画和浮雕所表现的两大主题分别是日常生活和来世生活。

After several representative statues, let's move on to talk about the funerary murals and reliefs of the Old Kingdom period. Murals and reliefs are also important art forms, and in contrast to sculptures, which are mainly used to represent figures, murals and reliefs record much important information about society and culture. The two main subjects represented in the murals and reliefs are daily life and life in the afterlife.

墓葬浮雕

Pictorial Relief in Tombs

在萨卡拉，在一位名叫“提”的官员的马斯塔巴当中有一个精彩的彩绘浮雕，浮雕描绘了一个狩猎的场景。

In Saqqara, in the mastaba of an official named "Ti", there is a wonderful painted relief depicting a hunting scene.

雕塑家用重复的细槽在墙面上刻出了莎草的茎部，一艘船在莎草丛中慢慢移动。河流当中挤满了鱼、鳄鱼和河马，水以竖直方向的波浪线表示。提僵硬地站在船上，他比其他人物要大很多；其他人忙着挥舞他们手中的长矛猎杀河马。在场景的顶部，一种类似狐狸的动物在树叶和花朵当中跟踪着鸟类。

The sculptor has carved out the stem of the papyrus in repeated fine grooves on the wall, and a boat moves slowly through the papyrus. The river is crowded with fish, crocodiles, and hippopotamuses, and the water is shown as wavy lines in a vertical direction. Ti stood stiffly in the boat, which was much larger than the other figures. The others were busy wielding their spears and hunting hippos. At the top of the scene, a fox-like animal stalks the birds among the leaves and flowers.

关于这个浮雕的内容，有人认为这是死者生前经历过的一个真实的场景。埃及人认为混沌之神塞特有时会将自己伪装成河马在田地里面游荡，破坏庄稼。而观看或者参与猎杀河马是埃及官员的活动之一。还有人认为浮雕表现的是来世美好的生活，场景当中的主要人物是死者的灵魂。

Regarding the content of this relief, some people believe that it is a real scene experienced by the deceased during his lifetime. The Egyptians believed that Seth (Set), the god of chaos, would sometimes disguise himself as a hippopotamus to wander into fields and damage crops. And watching or participating in a hippo hunt is one of the activities of Egyptian officials. Others believe that the reliefs represent a good life in the afterlife and that the main character in the scenes is the spirit of the deceased.

这里我要说一下，“农业和狩猎”是一个比较常见的绘画题材，因为这两种活动都与食物的获取有关，它们可以指代“富足无忧的生活”。相类似的题材还比如各种“宴饮”的场景。另外，与“美好的生活”有关的经典意象还有长满果实的树（口误），流淌着奶与蜜的河流和倒不完的酒杯。而如果这些场景出现在陵墓当中，我们就可以将其理解成人们对于来世的美好生活的具体描述。另外，“狩猎”也可以指代正义对邪恶的胜利。

I should mention here that "agriculture and hunting" is a common subjects for paintings, because both activities are related to the acquisition of food, and they can refer to a "life of abundance and well-being". Similarly, there are many "banquet" scenes. Other images associated with the "good life" include fruitful trees, rivers flowing with milk and honey, and endless glasses of wine. If these scenes appear in tombs, we can interpret them as people’s concrete descriptions of a good life in the afterlife. In addition, "hunting" can also refer to the triumph of good over evil, or of order over chaos.

这个场景当中的主要人物很“出戏”。这个场景非常生动，而他昂首挺立的姿态非常僵硬，这就使得他在这个场景当中显得格格不入。他和场景之间没有任何互动，仿佛时间在他身上停止了流动。他是一个独立于情节之外的旁观者，或者周围的一切都只是在为了他而进行的一场表演。“概念性”的表达方式在这里再次体现，作者想要表达的是“永恒”或者是“死亡的本质”。

The main character in the scene is "out of plot". It is a vivid scene and the stiff standing posture makes him look very special in this scene. There is no interaction between him and the scene as if time has stopped flowing in him. He is a bystander independent of the plot, or everything around him was just a performance for his sake. The "conceptual" character is again reflected in this work, where the artist wants to express "eternity" or "the nature of death".

古王国时期的内容到这里我就讲的差不多了，这里咱们小结一下。这一部分内容我简单介绍了“王权的艺术”和“来世的艺术”这两个方面的内容，艺术程式的相关内容以及重要的文化背景信息。这些内容可能会非常枯燥，但我的目的是在于通过这些内容搭建一个基本的分析框架，通过这个框架我们可以完成对于大多数古埃及艺术作品的分析。这里我想说的是，欣赏艺术作品从来就不是一件轻松的事情，而是需要我们支付相当的学习成本的。艺术是一面镜子，而我们能够从中看到的东西取决于我们的知识储备和受教育水平，这一点我希望大家能够理解。

I have almost finished the content of the Old Kingdom period, so let's summarize it here. In this section, I briefly introduced the content of "The Art of Kingship" and "The Art of the Afterlife", the content of artistic conventions, and important cultural contexts. These contents could be very boring, but I aim to build a basic analytical framework through which we can complete the analysis of most ancient Egyptian artworks. What I want to say here is that appreciating artwork is never an easy thing, but requires us to pay a considerable learning cost. Art is a mirror, what it reflects is what knowledge we had and how we were educated, which I hope you could understand.

到这里为止我主要是将精力集中在“作品”上面，而后面的内容我会把视角拔高，将注意力集中在“发展”上面。

Up to this point, I have focused mainly on the "works", while later I will focus on the "development".

古王国时期是艺术发展的黄金时代，这一时期的艺术风格恢弘、稳重、自信。大多数的艺术形式和艺术程式已经确定下来，形成了传统。然而一个王朝也会经历从出生到死亡的过程，古王国时期最后也衰落了。

The Old Kingdom period was the golden age of artistic development, and the artistic style of this period was magnificent, steady, and confident. Most of the art forms and artistic conventions have been established and formed into traditions. Yet a dynasty also goes through the process from birth to death, and the Old Kingdom period eventually declined.

古王国的衰落是多种原因造成的。五个世纪以来，王权制度慢慢侵蚀了埃及的经济活力，使其再也无力支撑一个庞大的中央集权政府。在第六王朝（公元前2345-2181年）期间，法老为了维持统治给予各地方总督世袭的权力，这反而加剧了地方割据，使中央权力进一步衰弱，埃及境内一个个半独立的小王朝纷纷出现。在佩皮二世（公元前2278-2184年）漫长的统治时期里（据称94年），他的数位继任者均已不在人世。在他死后，埃及可能陷入了一场由王位继承问题而引发的内战。

The decline of the Old Kingdom was the result of many causes. Over five centuries, the kingship system slowly eroded Egypt's economic vitality, making it no longer capable of supporting a large, centralized government. During the Sixth Dynasty (2345-2181 BCE), the pharaohs gave hereditary power to regional governors (nomarchs) to maintain their rule, but this intensified local fragmentation and further weakened central authority, causing the emergence of small, semi-independent dynasties within Egypt. During the long reign (claimed to be 94 years) of Pepi II (2278-2184 B.C.), several of his successors were no longer alive. After his death, Egypt may have slipped into a civil war triggered by the succession to the throne.

天灾与人祸总是如影随形。一场发生于公元前二十二世纪的大旱灾使得埃及地区的降水量急剧下降，这导致尼罗河无法正常泛滥，进而影响了农业生产。最终，第六王朝在政治动荡和经济崩溃中灭亡。而第六王朝的灭亡也标志着古王国时期的结束。

Natural disasters and man-made disasters always follow each other. A major drought in the 22nd century B.C. caused a drastic drop in precipitation in the Egyptian region, which prevented the Nile from flooding properly, thus affecting agricultural production. Eventually, the Sixth Dynasty fell into political turmoil and economic collapse. The fall of the Sixth Dynasty also marked the end of the Old Kingdom period.

在失去了中央政府帮助的情况下，地方的粮食短缺和总督间的政治争端很快就升级为饥荒和小规模的内战。此后埃及进入了一个约150年的饥荒和动荡的时期，这一时期被称为“第一中间期”。

Without the help of the central government, regional food shortages and political disputes between governors soon escalated into famine and small-scale civil war. Egypt then entered a period of famine and strife for about 150 years, a period known as the "First Intermediate Period".

尽管存在着各种困难，但由于总督们摆脱了法老获得了独立，各个地方的艺术创造力得到了激发，古埃及进入了一个文化多元发展的时期。然而，“合久必分，分久必合”。

Yet despite difficult problems, ancient Egypt entered a period of cultural pluralism as governors gained independence from the pharaohs and local artistic creativity was stimulated. However, "unity for a long time will be divided, division for a long time will be united".

在埃及中央政府垮台之后，各个地方的统治者们开始相互争夺领土控制和政治权力。约公元前2160年，希拉孔波利斯的统治者统一了北部的下埃及，而底比斯的统治者统一了南部的上埃及。埃及出现了南北朝的局面。

After the fall of the central government in Egypt, local rulers began to compete with each other for territorial control and political power. Around 2160 B.C., the rulers of Hierakonpolis unified Lower Egypt in the north, while the rulers of Thebes unified Upper Egypt in the south. Two dynasties emerged in Egypt, the Southern Dynasty and the Northern Dynasty.

随着南部王朝势力的不断壮大和它不停地向北扩张，两个王朝的冲突不可避免。约公元前2055年左右，底比斯的第十一王朝法老门图霍泰普二世击败了希拉孔波利斯的统治者，埃及再次统一。此后埃及进入了一个稳定发展的新时期，中王国时期。

As the southern dynasty continued to grow in power and expand northward, a clash between the two dynasties was inevitable. Around 2055 B.C., Mentuhotep II of the Eleventh Dynasty of Thebes defeated the ruler of Hierakonpolis and Egypt was unified again. Thereafter Egypt entered a new period of stable development, the Middle Kingdom period.

中王国时期与第二中间期（第十一王朝晚期至第十七王朝，约公元前2061年-公元前1549年）

The Middle Kingdom Period and the Second Intermediate Period (Late Eleventh Dynasty to Seventeenth Dynasty, c. 2061 B.C. - 1549 B.C.)

中王国时期是古埃及历史上的另一个高峰。在这一时期奥西里斯成为了宗教当中最重要的神灵。中王国时期的艺术基本上延续了古王国时期的传统，但也有一些值得注意的创新。

The Middle Kingdom period was another high point in Egyptian history. During this period Osiris became the most important deity in the religion. The art of the Middle Kingdom period largely continues the traditions of the Old Kingdom period, but there are some noteworthy innovations.

辛努塞尔特三世头像

The Face of Senusret III (Senwosret III)

与我们前面所看到的“面无表情”的法老雕像不同，辛努塞尔特三世头像是一个表情生动，充满个性的作品，表现出了对于传统的突破。

Unlike the "expressionless" statue of the pharaoh we saw earlier, the head of Senusret III is a work of vivid expression and full of personality, which shows a break with tradition.

我们透过一件作品可以看出一个时期的历史风貌。古王国时期的法老雕像平和而坚定，从中我们可以感受到古王国时期的那份自信和强大。而辛努塞尔特三世的头像表现的却是一个情绪低落的君主，这是非常罕见的。前面咱们提到，在传统上，雕刻家会赋予法老一个年轻的容貌。但辛努塞尔特三世的头像所展现出的却是一个活生生的，年迈的脸。

We can get a glimpse of the history of a period and people's thoughts through a work of art. The statues of pharaohs from the Old Kingdom period were calm and firm, from which we can feel the confidence and power of that period. And the portrait of Senusret III seems to show a monarch who is emotionally drained, which is very rare. As we mentioned earlier, traditionally, sculptors would have given the pharaoh a youthful appearance. But the head of Senusret III shows a living, aged face.

这里我要补充一下这位法老的相关背景。辛努塞尔特三世是中王国时期第十二王朝的第五位法老，他改革了埃及的中央行政管理，加强了中央的权力，领导了对努比亚的四次军事远征并且有效地压制了地方势力。他下垂的脸颊上法令纹明显，眼睛凹陷，眉头紧皱，嘴角下垂，显得心事重重。似乎雕刻家非常能够体会这位法老当时的心境。

Here I would like to add the background of this pharaoh. Senusret III, the fifth pharaoh of the Twelfth Dynasty during the Middle Kingdom, reformed the central administration of Egypt, strengthened central authority, led four military expeditions against Nubia, and effectively suppressed local forces. He had a sad expression and appeared preoccupied, wrinkles were evident on his sagging cheeks, his eyes were sunken, his brow was furrowed, and the corners of his mouth were drooping. The sculptor seems to be able to appreciate well the state of mind of the pharaoh at that time.

虽然这个头像可能也曾经拥有完美的身体，但在法老面部的处理上，雕塑家塑造出了前所未有的真实感。对此，一般认为这是法老有意为之的。原因在于在法老雕像的创作上，雕塑家是不太可能有自由发挥的空间的。只能将其解释为这是法老有意识地选择了以这种方式来记录自己的形象。这件作品所反映出的，可能是他一定程度上放弃了对于王权永恒的理想化追求。再进一步，法老略带悲伤的表情所反映出的可能是当时埃及社会的主流情绪，它揭示了一个动荡的时代在人们心中所留下的印记。总的来说，尽管这件作品仍然是一件严肃作品，但它已经体现出了一定的反思基调。

This work may also have once had a perfect body, but the sculptor has created a face with unprecedented realism. It is generally believed that this was the pharaoh's intent to do so. This is because it is unlikely that the sculptor would have taken creative liberties with the statue of the pharaoh. This can only be interpreted as a conscious choice by the pharaoh to record his image in this way. What this work reflects may be the pharaoh's abandonment of the idealized pursuit of eternal kingship. Further, the slightly sad expression of the pharaoh may reflect the prevailing mood of Egyptians at the time, revealing the mark left on people's minds by a troubled era. Although this work is still serious, it already embodies a certain reflective tone.

讲完雕像，我们接着再来看一下建筑、壁画和浮雕。

After the statues, let's move on to the architecture, murals, and reliefs.

凿岩建筑与壁画

Rock-cut Architecture and Murals

凿岩是一种古老的造型方式，人们会通过挖掘山崖来创造空间和雕像。它最主要的三个用途是建造凿岩神庙、凿岩陵墓和凿岩住宅。其中凿岩陵墓在中王国时期变得普遍，尤其是在第十一和第十二王朝时期，它在很大程度上取代了马斯塔巴成为了贵族和官员的陵墓。而典型的凿岩神庙和凿岩雕像是新王国时期的阿布辛贝神庙和它外面的巨像，这个我会在后面说。

Rock-cutting was an ancient form of modeling in which people would excavate cliffs to create spaces and statues. Rock-cutting was mainly used to build rock-cut temples, rock-cut tombs, and rock-cut dwellings. Rock-cut tombs became common during the Middle Kingdom, especially during the Eleventh and Twelfth Dynasties, when they largely replaced the mastaba as the tombs of nobles and officials. And typical rock-cut temples and rock-cut statues were the Abu Simbel temple and its colossal statue outside in the New Kingdom period, which I will talk about later.

一个标准的凿岩陵墓包括了入口门廊、主厅、小礼拜堂以及位于地下带有神龛的墓室。所有的墓葬装饰，比如石柱、门楣、假门和壁龛。其中有一些带有垂直槽的石柱可能对后来的希腊柱式产生了影响。

A typical rock-cut tomb includes an entrance porch, the main hall, a chapel, and an underground chamber with a shrine. All burial decorations, such as stone columns, lintels, false doors, and niches, were carved into the rock. The stone columns with vertical channels may have influenced the Greek columns.

许多凿岩墓的内壁上都有彩绘场景，其中保存最完好的是在贝尼哈桑的一个当地贵族（赫努姆霍特普）的坟墓里面，这副壁画描绘了他庄园当中的农活场景。

Many rock-cut tombs have murals on their interior walls, the best preserved of which was the tomb of a local noble (Khnumhotep) in Beni Hasan, which depicts farming scenes on his estate.

这个场景当中有两个人在采摘无花果，而树上又有三只狒狒在吃着成熟的果实。左边的人伸出手将果子摘下整齐地码在篮子里面，而他右侧的同伴则将果子放入一个大一些的箱子里面。和我们之前看到的墓葬壁画相似，这个生动的场景所描绘的是与“获取食物”有关的内容，它所表现的是富足美好的生活。而且这里还可以看出来一点，普通人的表现方式会相对自然一些，他们是不受艺术程式的限制的。

In the scene, there are two people harvesting figs, while three baboons are relishing the ripe fruit on the tree. The man on the left reaches for a fig to add to the ordered stack in his basket, while his companion on the right put the fruit into a larger box. Similar to the tomb murals we have seen before, this vivid scene depicts content related to the "acquisition of food", and it represents a life of abundance and well-being. And we can also see through this work that ordinary people will be represented in a relatively natural way, and they are free from the constraints of artistic conventions.

在这一时期的艺术创作当中，很多雕像和浮雕的草图是在一个由方形网格所组成的参考系当中进行规划的，作者可以通过一系列的参考线和网格来标记人物各个部位的确切位置。我们接下来要讲的这件作品就可以很好的展示这种创作方式。

Many of the sketches of statues and reliefs from this period were planned in a reference system consisting of square grids that allowed the artists to mark the exact position of each part of the figure through a set of reference lines and grids. The work we are going to talk about next is a good demonstration of this way of creation.

石碑与浮雕

Steles and Reliefs

这个雕刻家（乌瑟维尔）石碑是一个典型的墓葬石碑。石碑上的场景分为三个部分，分别是最上方的铭文和下方两个带有人物的场景。

This sculptor (Userwer) stele is a typical burial stele; the scene is divided into three parts, the topmost inscription and the two scenes with figures below.

最上面的五行象形文字是写给家属的，主要的内容是恳求后人为死者供奉祭品。铭文下方描绘了一个家庭宴会的场景。这件作品所表现的内容大家可以自行解读。而这件作品的特别之处是在于它并没有完工，在石碑上面仍然保留着用于确定人物比例的墨迹。大家看石碑的最下方，最左侧的两个男性人物的轮廓已经用黑色墨水勾勒完成了。前面两个女性人物的身体已经被雕刻完了，但她们的头部和手臂没有完成。我们可以从它“未完成”的状态了解到中王国时期的标准人物比例。

The five lines of hieroglyphics at the top were written to the family, the main content of which was a plea for descendants to make offerings. A family banquet scene is depicted below the inscription. You can interpret the content of this work for yourself. The special feature of this work is that it was not finished, and the ink marks used to scale the figures remain on the stele. At the lowest part of the stele, the outlines of the two male figures on the far left had been completed in black ink. The bodies of the two female figures had been carved, but their heads and arms were unfinished. From its "unfinished" state, we can understand the standard proportions of figures in the Middle Kingdom period.

坐姿的人物高14个格子。站姿的人物从脚到发际线的高度是18个格子，膝盖的顶部位于地线以上的第6个格子，肩膀和第16格的顶部对齐，并且人物有6格的宽度。这个方法可以让雕刻家对场景当中所有的元素做出恰当的安排。不过具体的比例在不同的作品当中可能会有所差异。

A seated figure is 14 squares high. The standing figure is 18 squares high from the feet to the hairline, the top of the knee is at the 6th square up from the floor line, the shoulders are aligned with the top of the 16th square, and the figure has a width of 6 squares. This method allows the sculptor to make a proper arrangement of all the elements in the scene. However, the exact proportions may vary from piece to piece.

一般来说，每位法老都有三个建筑要造，给自己的陵墓，纪念性建筑和献给太阳神的神庙。纪念性建筑在埃及的建筑当中占有很大的比重，其中以方尖碑最具有代表性。

Each pharaoh usually had to build three structures, the tomb for himself, the monumental architecture, and the temple dedicated to the sun god. Monumental architecture was a large part of Egyptian architecture, of which the obelisk is the most representative.

方尖碑

Obelisk

我们通常所说的方尖碑是指古方尖碑。埃及的古方尖碑通常是由整块的石头雕刻而成的，它的造型来自于神话当中对于奔奔石的描述。方尖碑是太阳崇拜（或者拉神崇拜）的一种形式，它们会成对儿的被竖立在神庙的入口处。方尖碑的顶端是和金字塔相似的锥状，其四个侧面都刻有象形文字，它主要的两个功能是宗教功能和纪念功能。

The obelisk we usually refer to is the ancient obelisk. The Egyptian ancient obelisks were usually carved from whole stones, and their shape was inspired by the mythological description of the "ben-ben". Obelisks were a form of sun worship (or Ra) and they were erected in pairs at the entrances of temples. The top of the obelisk resembles a pyramid, and its four sides are inscribed with hieroglyphic inscriptions; its two main functions are religious and monumental.

虽然方尖碑的修建最早在第四王朝就开始了，但现存最古老的方尖碑来自于第十二王朝。现存的埃及古方尖碑有几十座，但它们并不全在埃及，而是分散于世界各地，我选几个有代表性的简单介绍一下。

Although the construction of obelisks began as early as the Fourth Dynasty, the oldest surviving one was from the Twelfth Dynasty. There are dozens of Egyptian ancient obelisks, but they are not all in Egypt, but all over the world, I will select several representative ones to briefly introduce.

在罗马帝国时期，许多方尖碑被从埃及运到了现在的意大利，其中至少有十几座被放在了罗马城，这其中就包括了现在位于圣乔瓦尼广场的拉特兰方尖碑。拉特兰方尖碑最初建于第十八王朝的图特摩斯三世时期，当时它被竖立在卡纳克神庙。（方尖碑）高32米，现在它是现存最大的埃及古方尖碑，同时它也是意大利最高的方尖碑。而罗马城更广为人知的方尖碑是位于圣彼得广场中心的方尖碑，它是在公元37年由卡利古拉带到罗马的。

During the Roman Empire, many obelisks were brought from Egypt to what is now Italy, and at least a dozen of them were placed in the city of Rome, including the Lateran obelisk now in Piazza San Giovanni. The Lateran Obelisk was originally built during the reign of Thutmose III of the Eighteenth Dynasty when it was erected at the Karnak Temple. The obelisk is 32 meters high and it is the largest surviving Egyptian ancient obelisk, as well as the tallest in Italy. More widely known is the Obelisk in the center of St. Peter's Square, which was brought to Rome by Caligula in 37 AD.

在十九世纪，有三座埃及古方尖碑被当作礼物送给了法国，英国和美国。拉美西斯二世曾经在卢克索神庙的入口处竖立了一对儿方尖碑，其中西侧的方尖碑现在位于巴黎的协和广场，被称作卢克索方尖碑；而东侧的方尖碑仍然位于神庙的入口处。另外的两座方尖碑都叫做“克利奥帕特拉针”（“克利奥帕特拉方尖碑”），它们分别位于伦敦威斯敏斯特的维多利亚堤岸和纽约的中央公园；这对儿方尖碑上面的铭文经过了图特摩斯三世和拉美西斯二世两位法老之手。埃及古方尖碑分散于世界各地的过程涉及埃及复杂的历史，可以说每一座埃及古方尖碑都是有故事的方尖碑。

In the nineteenth century, three Egyptian ancient obelisks were given as gifts to France, England, and the United States. Ramesses II erected a pair of obelisks at the entrance of the Luxor Temple, of which the western one, now in the Place de la Concorde in Paris, is known as the Luxor Obelisk, while the eastern one is still at the entrance of the temple. The other two obelisks, both called "Cleopatra's Needle" (or "Cleopatra's Obelisk"), are on the Victoria Embankment in Westminster, London, and in Central Park, New York; the inscriptions on the two obelisks were written by Thutmose III and Ramesses II. The process by which Egyptian ancient obelisks were brought to different places in the world involves a complex history of Egypt, and each one has a story to tell.

而作为民族成就和国家权力的象征，现代方尖碑延续了古方尖碑的纪念功能。大多数的现代方尖碑都是由砖石和混凝土制成的，它通常被当作一座城市的地标来提醒世人这里过去的历史。比如在阿根廷首都，布宜诺斯艾利斯的共和国广场上竖立的布宜诺斯艾利斯方尖碑和位于美国哥伦比亚特区的华盛顿纪念碑。

And as a symbol of national achievements and state power, the modern obelisk inherits the monumental function of the ancient obelisk. Most modern obelisks are made of masonry and concrete and are often used as landmarks in a city to remind the world of its history. Examples include the Obelisco de Buenos Aires, erected in the Argentine capital, the Plaza de la República in Buenos Aires, and the Washington Monument in the District of Columbia, U.S.

中王国时期的内容到这里就差不多了。总的来说，中王国时期的艺术在细部上有所创新，但在大体上还是遵循了古王国时期的传统。

I have almost finished the content of the Middle Kingdom period. In general, the art of the Middle Kingdom period is innovative in some places, but in general, it follows the traditions of the Old Kingdom period.

中王国在阿蒙涅姆赫特三世时期发展到了顶峰，他以大规模的建筑工程和矿业开采而著称。他为了这些庞大工程，将大量的人口从西亚引入到三角洲地区并允许他们在这里定居。在他统治的45年之后，王位由他的儿子阿蒙涅姆赫特四世继承。但是到了这个时候，王朝的权力再次衰弱。

The Middle Kingdom reached its peak during the reign of Amenemhat III, who was known for his extensive building programs and quarry exploitation. He brought a large number of people from Western Asia to the Delta region and allowed them to settle there for these massive projects. After 45 years of the reign of Amenemhat III, the throne was succeeded by Amenemhat IV, but by this time the power of the dynasty was weakened again.

这其中的原因很复杂，其中包括了大力发展国家工程导致的经济发展停滞；这一时期尼罗河泛滥不足导致的农作物歉收和阿蒙涅姆赫特三世统治时间过长导致的继任问题。第十二王朝随着末代的法老没有继承人而终结。随后，埃及在第十三和第十四王朝期间缓慢衰落，并在第十四王朝的末期再一次陷入了动荡和分裂，这个混乱的时期被称为第二中间期。

The decline of the kingdom was caused by many factors, including the stagnation of economic development caused by large-scale state projects; crop failures caused by the inadequate flooding of the Nile during this period, and the succession crisis caused by the inordinately long reign of Amenemhat III. The Twelfth Dynasty came to an end since the last pharaoh had no heir. Egypt declined slowly during the Thirteenth and Fourteenth Dynasties and fell into turmoil and division again at the end of the Fourteenth Dynasty, known as the Second Intermediate Period.

随着中王国政权的衰落，一个被称为希克索斯人的西亚民族进入了三角洲地区并实现了对这一地区的有效控制。他们在这里建立了自己的政权，定都阿瓦里斯，这就是第十五王朝-希克索斯王朝。有说法认为希克索斯人就是之前从西亚引入的大量人口。

With the fall of the Middle Kingdom regime, West Asian people known as the Hyksos entered the Delta region and achieved effective control of the area. They established their regime here and set their capital in Avaris, which was the Fifteenth Dynasty - the Hyksos Dynasty. There are claims that the Hyksos were the large population previously introduced from Western Asia.

希克索斯意为“外来统治者”。这一王朝的建立标志着埃及第一次由外国统治者进行统治。他们逼迫前埃及政府南迁至底比斯，法老被视为附庸，并被要求进贡。因此也有人将第十六王朝看作是第十五王朝的附庸。

Hyksos means "ruler(s) of foreign lands". The establishment of this dynasty marked the first time that Egypt was ruled by foreign rulers. They forced the former Egyptian government to move south to Thebes, and the pharaohs were treated as vassals and expected to pay tribute. Therefore, some people also consider the Sixteenth Dynasty as a vassal of the Fifteenth Dynasty.

然而第十五王朝并没有控制整个埃及，它和底比斯的第十六、第十七王朝共存，而且两种不同的文化产生了一定的融合。希克索斯王朝效仿埃及的统治模式并且将新的战争工具引入了埃及，最著名的就是复合弓和马拉战车。

However, the Fifteenth Dynasty did not control all of Egypt but coexisted with the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Dynasties of Thebes, and there was some fusion of the two different cultures. The Hyksos Dynasty followed the Egyptian model of rule and introduced new tools of warfare into Egypt, most notably the composite bow and horse-drawn chariots.

南迁后的埃及政权被夹在了北部的希克索斯王朝和南部努比亚的库什王国之间。此后的一段时间埃及人在消沉和无为当中度过。经过近百年的蛰伏，底比斯的埃及人在聚集了足够的力量之后先是起兵南下打败了努比亚人，然后在雅赫摩斯一世的领导之下又北上打败了希克索斯人，并且将这些外来者彻底驱逐出了埃及。至此，第十八王朝建立，埃及再次统一。此后埃及进入了其历史当中最繁荣的时期，新王国时期。

After retreating southward, the Egyptian regime was trapped between the Hyksos Dynasty in the north and the Kush Kingdom in Nubia in the south. The Egyptians spent the following period in depression and inactivity. After nearly a century of development, the Egyptians of Thebes gathered enough strength to defeat the Nubians in the south, and then under the rule of Ahmose I, defeated the Hyksos in the north and expelled these foreigners from Egypt completely. The 18th Dynasty was established and Egypt unified again. After that, Egypt entered the most brilliant period of its history, the New Kingdom period.

第十八王朝有许多著名的法老，比如图特摩斯三世、女法老哈特谢普苏特、阿蒙霍特普四世（埃赫那顿）和图坦卡蒙等等。

The 18th Dynasty had many famous pharaohs, such as Thutmose III, the female pharaoh Hatshepsut, Amenhotep IV (Akhenaten), and Tutankhamun.

在新王国时期，为了巩固现有政权以及避免埃及再次被外族所统治，军队就成为了法老最优先考虑的事情。在图特摩斯一世和他的孙子图特摩斯三世的统治时期，埃及达到了其历史当中的最大疆域。埃及向南扩张至努比亚并在黎凡特拥有大片领土。新王国也被称为埃及帝国。通过维护边境安全和加强与邻国的外交，埃及进入了一个空前繁荣的时代。

During the New Kingdom, the army became the highest priority for the pharaohs to consolidate the existing regime and to prevent Egypt from being ruled by foreigners again. During the reign of Thutmose I and his grandson Thutmose III, Egypt reached the largest territory in its history. Egypt expanded southward to Nubia and held large territories in the Levant. The New Kingdom was also known as the Egyptian Empire. By maintaining border security and strengthening diplomatic ties with its neighbors, Egypt entered an era of unprecedented prosperity.